Pathogenesis of type II DM.

(1) insulin resistance and (2) β-cell dysfunction: inadequate insulin secretion in the face of insulin resistance and hyperglycemia Sedentar...

Pathogenesis of type I DM.

chronic autoimmune attack on β cells manifestations of the disease (hyperglycemia and ketosis) occur late in its course, after more than 90%...

Classification of Diabetes Mellitus.

Type 1 diabetes (β-cell destruction): Immune-mediated, Idiopathic Type 2 diabetes (insulin resistance with relative insulin deficiency) Matu...

Secretory Diarrhea.

Infectious: viral damage to mucosal epithelium Rotavirus Caliciviruses Enteric adenoviruses Astroviruses Infectious: enterotoxin mediated Vi...

Comparison of Type 1 DM and Type 2 DM

Etiological classification of Diarrhea.

Malabsorption Defective intraluminal digestion Primary mucosal cell abnormalities Reduced small intestinal surface area Lymphatic obstructio...

Osmotic Diarrhea.

Disaccharidase (lactase) deficiencies Lactulose therapy (for hepatic encephalopathy, constipation) Prescribed gut lavage for diagnostic proc...

Diseases of the Intestine.

Hernia - Inguinal Hernia - Opened. Intestinal Obstruction: Intussusception: Volvulus: Diverticula:

Comparison between Crohn Disease and Ulcerative Colitis.

Ulcerative colitis.

limited to the mucosa and submucosa begins in the rectum and extends proximally in a continuous fashion migratory polyarthritis, sacroiliiti...

Crohn’s disease.

Used to be called " terminal ileitis " or " regional enteritis ” extra-intestinal complications of immune origin, such as uve...

Inflammatory Bowel disease.

result from an abnormal local immune response against the normal flora of the gut, and probably against some self antigens, in genetically s...

Papillary Carcinoma.

previous exposure to ionizing radiation they may be well circumscribed and even encapsulated; in other instances, they infiltrate the adjace...

Follicular Carcinoma.

nodular goiter may predispose RAS mutations in follicular adenomas and carcinomas suggests that they may be related tumors Hürthle cell vari...

Medullary Carcinoma.

Like normal C cells, medullary carcinomas secrete calcitonin, the measurement of which plays an important role Neuroendocrine cells may secr...

Anaplastic Carcinoma.

multinodular goiter, or other differentiated carcinoma are usually present bulky masses that typically grow rapidly beyond the thyroid capsu...

Molecular steps in carcinogenesis of Thyroid.

Papillary carcinoma: (75% to 85%): novel fusion genes, known as ret/ PTC , which constitutively activate RET and the downstream MAP kina...

Thyroid adenoma.

Although the vast majority of adenomas are nonfunctional, a small proportion produces thyroid hormones (" toxic adenomas ") Activa...

Thyroid neoplasm.

Solitary nodules, in general, are more likely to be neoplastic than are multiple nodules. Nodules in younger patients are more likely to be ...

GIANT CELL ARTERITIS, TEMPORAL ARTERITIS.

Giant cell /temporal arteritis - the most common of the vasculitides. It is a granulomatous inflammation of arteries of large to small size...

TAKAYASU ARTERITIS.

An inflammatory disorder of the aortic arch and its major branches, with localized stenosis or occlusion An auto-immune basis has been propo...

POLYARTERITIS NODOSA.

Systemic vasculitis affecting medium and small muscular arteries- kidneys 85%, heart 75%, liver 65%, GI 50% Morphology - acute (fibrinoid n...

WEGENER'S GRANULOMATOSIS.

Systemic vasculitis of small arteries and veins. Granulomatous inflammation of nose, sinuses, lung, kidney Anti Cytoplasmic Neutrophil Antib...

Coagulation disorders.

Deficiencies of Clotting factors Onset - delayed after trauma Deep bleeding Into joints - Hemarthroses Into deep tissues – Hematoma large sk...

Major Disorders Associated with Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation.

Obstetric Complications Abruptio placentae Retained dead fetus Septic abortion Amniotic fluid embolism Toxemia Infections Gram-negative seps...

Thrombocytopenia.

Decreased platelet count. Is characterized by spontaneous bleeding which is evident at platelet count below 20,000/μL , 20,000 to 50,000 may...

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpuras.

Autoimmune in origin. may occur in isolation or in association with an underlying condition such as lymphoma or collagen vascular disease ...

Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia.

Heparin – binds to AT III – inactivation of factors IIa, IXa, Xa, XIa, XIIa. – used as anticoagulant. Large molecular weight substance. On ...

Polycythemia.

Relative: Reduced plasma volume (hemoconcentration) Primary: Abnormal proliferation of myeloid stem cells, normal or low erythropoietin leve...

Aplastic Anemia.

Aplastic anemia is a disorder characterized by the suppression of multipotent myeloid stem cells, with resultant anemia, thrombocytopenia, a...

Immunohemolytic Anemias.

caused by antibodies that react against normal or altered RBC membranes. Immunohemolytic anemias are classified on the basis of the nature o...

Microangiopathic Hemolytic Anemia.

MHA is the form of intravascular hemolysis These disorders is characterized by the presence of vascular lesions that predispose the circula...

Glucose 6 Phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.

G6PD – is a rate limiting enzyme in HMP shunt pathway . This pathway is responsible for production of NADPH which is required in number of ...

Hereditary Spherocytosis.

Autosomal dominant / Autosomal recessive (25% more severe) pattern of inheritance Spherodial RBCs – which makes RBC less deformable and more...

Autosplenectomy.

Microvasuclar Ischemia. Autosplenectomy - Intially there is moderate splenomegaly caused by congestion of the red pulp with masses of RBCs ...

Sickle cell Anemia.

Sickle cell Anemia is hemoglobinopathie , where substitution of valine for glutamic acid at the sixth position of the β-chain produces HbS. ...

Hemolytic anemias

Anemia that are associated with decreased RBC life span. Hemolytic anemias are characterized by an increased rate of RBC destruction, a comp...

Thalassemia.

Thalassemia syndromes are a heterogenous group of inherited disorders caused by genetic lesions leading to decreased synthesis of either alp...

Disorders Associated with Splenomegaly.

I. Infections Nonspecific splenitis of various blood-borne infections (particularly infective endocarditis) Infectious mononucleosis Tubercu...

Pernicious Anemia.

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Deficiency Anemia: can also cause a demyelinating disorder involving the peripheral nerves and, ultimately and most ...

Megaloblastic Anemia (a)

Folic Acid Deficiency Decreased intake Inadequate diet—alcoholism, infancy Impaired absorption Malabsorption states Intrinsic intestinal dis...